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Features of the Culture of Chinese FoodFood and drink are physiological needs for both man and animals. But essentially they take their food in quite different ways. Through intelligence and skill, man has discovered and created numerous varieties of foods, thus making diet a cultural event. Dietary culture is an important part of traditional Chinese culture. It has rich connotations, including the resources of food, cooking skills, food production, dietotherapy, public dietary ways and customs, and dietary art. Since ancient times, agriculture has been the foundation of China's economy. And it was the most typical Chinese material culture in ancient times. Dietary culture is closely linked with agriculture. Before agriculture, man depended on food in a way that was no different from animals, mainly including the flesh of beasts and roots of plants. Since the introduction of agriculture, grains of cultivated crops have become the main source of man's staple food. Farming began to take up most of man's labor and time. Cultivation of crops was a process of man's work from sowing, applying fertilizer to harvest. It was the most important work in people's mind that could not be replaced by anything else. Growing crops was not the only way of obtaining food. The ancients began expanding their sources of food at a very early time, developing farming, forestry animal husbandry, sidelines, and fishing in line with local conditions. As early as the Xia (c.21st century to early 17th century Be), Shang (c.17th century to 11th century BC) and Zhou (c.11th century to 221 BC) dynasties, on the basis of well developed agriculture and the "nine squares" land system (one large square of land being divided into nine small ones like the Chinese character "#," the outer eight squares being allocated to eight households to till for themselves, while the central one was jointly cultivated by them for the state), animal husbandry and cultivation of crops were developed on scale. During the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, iron tools and oxen were widely used for cultivation of land, and many water conservancy facilities were built up. This aided the development of food production and allowed small farming families to thrive. In the Warring States Period, crops and animal husbandry were equally important aspects of the agricultural structure. At that time, earnings from farming production and crop growing accounted for 60 percent of the total earnings of a household. Earnings from horticulture and animal husbandry each made up 20 percent, excluding fishery and sidelines production. This was a planning model of diversified operations centering around crop production. Agriculture in the Han Dynasty (206 BC to 220 AD) was well developed. During the Western Han period (206 BC to 25 AD), because of wars against the Huns, the imperial court paid much attention to the development of animal husbandry, particularly to the breeding of fine strains of horses. The dynasty also introduced the state farm system, with both military and civil state farmland. Farmland was controlled by the government. Crop-growing and animal husbandry thrived and, in times of famine, the chamberlain for the national treasury could allocate stored grains and animals to disaster areas from state farmland areas. After the Wei (220-265) and Jin (265-420) dynasties, the economic center of gravity gradually shifted from the north to the south where rice was widely grown. Cultivating techniques were greatly improved. Except for a few products such as sweet potato and tobacco, almost all products now grown in China were produced in the Tang period (618-907). Tea production, in particular, was booming at the time. Lu Yu was known as the "sage of tea" of the time. His Classic of Tea discusses the origin of tea, its growing, harvesting and processing, as well as the fine details of brewing and drinking tea. The cultivation of tea was very popular in the south. About 20 to 30 percent of the population of Jiangsu and Anhui provinces were involved in the tea trade. Because so many people were selling tea, a tea tax began to be levied during the mid-Tang period and a series of policies were instituted to control the transactions. Fishery was also well developed in the period. Apart from the conventional methods of using nets and aquatic birds to catch fish, a number of new ways were also invented. Breeding fish in ponds was a common practice and people in the far south even bred fish in paddy fields. Since the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1911) dynasties, along with the development of a diversified agriculture, more and more approaches to expand the sources of food have developed. The Qing Dynasty book An Outline of Agricultural Production suggested: "It is advisable to build ponds to breed fish in areas with water and weeds, and to tend cattle and sheep in arid highlands. Geese and ducks are raised along waterways and chickens and doves in plains. In this way, the species will be developed and multiplied and profits will be doubled." The plan outlined in the book aimed at a comprehensive development of food supply, combining the cultivation of crops and animal husbandry for large-scale agricultural production. It advocated a highly efficient agricultural system for the recycling of materials and the multiple use of resources. A typical demonstration of this eco-agricultural system can be seen in the plain areas of Hangzhou, Jiaxing and Huzhou and the Pearl River Delta area. In the area of Jiaxing and Huzhou, affluent sources of grains and animal husbandry were veritably realized. Crop production and cattle breeding promoted each other. Pigs were fed with agricultural sideline products, and their manure was used as fertilizer on the farmland. Silkworms were also produced in the area and the mulberry leaves that they fed on were fed to sheep in the winter and early spring. The sheep raised in the area reproduced quickly and the quality of their skin was famous. The mulberry trees themselves were fertilized with the droppings of silkworms and sheep. All this was a good and rational recycling of materials. In the Pearl River Delta area, fishery was well known. Fish stocks in ponds were fed with mulberry leaves, sugarcane or fruit. After a long time of operation, the local farmers had accumulated their experience of breeding four species of domesticated fishes (black carp, grass carp, silver carp and flathead). They had known that grass carps could be fed with grass, but silver carps and flatheads could be fed only with planktons. In a word, the development of agriculture in ancient times not only provided affluent sources of food for man, but also maintained an ecological system of recycling. This ecological agriculture is also known as complex agriculture. It is one of the important achievements in China's material cultural history. China is the origin of a great variety of agricultural products, such as rice and soy beans. Through its long history, it has also cultivated many strains of crops and plants. At the same time, it has introduced a number of fine species of farm products from abroad. Of these products, some are staples and others are vegetables and fruits. During the periods of the Han and Tang dynasties, a powerful China appeared with more agricultural exchanges conducted between the Central Plain and foreign countries. Emperor Wudi (r.140-88 BC) of the Western Han Dynasty, relying on the powerful strength of the country, sent envoys to the Western Regions. Zhang Qian was sent to the region twice to open up a passage from. The Central Plain: the world-famous "Silk Road." Zhang brought silk products from China to the region and brought fruits and seeds of various plants back home. Seeds and fruits were carried on the back of camels trudging across the vast desert to China. According to historical records, at the time, "rare commodities are imported from all directions." Zhang brought garlic back from Ferghana and coriander, linseed, walnut, pomegranate and lucerne from Bacteria. Trials were undertaken, growing these seeds and plants in gardens and then they were disseminated. During the Han period, a number of food materials were imported from the Western Regions such as grapes, pomegranate, lucerne, sesame, flax, walnut, garlic, garden pea, broad bean, water melon, musk melon, cucumber, spinach, lettuce, coriander, celery, carrot, lentil, onion, rose apple, castor oil plant, pepper, Persian date, fig, fennel, apricot, etc. All these were brought to China by envoys, monks and merchants, as well as Zhang Qian, enriching the varieties of food in the interior of the country. Parallel to the "Silk Road" on land, there was also another "Silk Road" on the sea. Outbound from Guangzhou and across the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean, this sea course was also known as "Silk and Spices on the Sea" used mainly for transporting goods such as silk products and overseas spices. Imported products included jasmine, sea date, areca, and quinine. During the Ming and Qing dynasties when China entered its later stage of feudal society, China's agriculture had attained a high level. However, its population also grew rapidly and the average arable land area per capita dropped drastically. In the year 1383 (or the 14th year of the reign of the first Ming emperor), the average arable land area per head was 14.56 mu (one mu=1/15 hectare). In 1834, the figure was 1.65 mu, or 88.7 percent less than that in 1383.During this period, communications between China and the West had become well developed. Many strains of high-yield crops were brought back by overseas Chinese and businessmen. This helped to alleviate the pressure of famine in various places and improve the country's supply of grain and vegetables. Some of the crops introduced into China during the Ming and Qing dynasties are as follows: Sweet potato: A plant native to America. After the discovery of the New World by Columbus, the sweet potato was soon introduced to Europe and many colonies in Southeast Asia. Its introduction to China was complicated. At the time, the Philippines was ruled by Spanish colonists, who prohibited the export of sweet potatoes. Chen Zhenlong, a Chinese national living there, learned that the sweet potato was a high-yield crop which could be stored up in case of famine. He became determined to introduce it to China. In 1593, he secretly carried it to Fujian Province by winding its stems around the ship's cables and coating them with mud. In this way, he avoided detection. Sweet potatoes were successfully transplanted in the province. Guangdong and Fujian provinces were often attacked by typhoons, resulting in successive years of famine. Sweet potatoes, therefore, became treasured as an insurance against natural disasters. During the 17th century, terrible floods occurred in south China, destroying farmland and crops and leaving great numbers of people homeless and starving. At that time, Xu Guangqi, a celebrated scientist, was experimenting with the cultivation of sweet potatoes in Shanghai. He succeeded, but his attempts to encourage others to grow the crop were met with skepticism. So he summed up the advantages of growing sweet potatoes and encouraged farmers to cultivate them. Corn: Introduced into China some time around the 16th century. Foreign envoys presented corn as gifts to Chinese emperors. According to historical documents, it was believed that corn was first imported from abroad through the seaports along the southeast coast, or from the Western Regions. The question of how and when corn arrived in China needs further study. These two crops are high-yield products, capable of resisting drought. Sweet potatoes are particularly delicious and nutritious and have a high rate of reproduction. The large and strong stems of corn are suitable for growing in hilly areas. They are conducive to alleviating the pressure from famine and the development of hilly areas. Peanut: Originally produced in America. In the early 16th century, peanuts were imported to China from Southeast Asia. At first, they were grown only in coastal provinces. Later, they began to be grown along the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, becoming extremely popular among the Chinese people. Potato: Another plant native to America. Potatoes were first introduced into China from Southeast Asia in the early Qing period. The Chronicles of Songxi County, written in the 39th year of the reign of Emperor Kangxi (1700), describes the potato as being "shaped like a jade, being small or large, black-colored and with a bitter sweet taste." Its use soon spread through north China and a part of south China. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, many varieties of vegetable were also introduced from abroad. Hot pepper: Introduced during the late 16th century. According to Records of Herbs and Flowers, "hot pepper grows thickly with white flowers. Its taste is hot, its color red and is a kind of ornamental plant. It has seeds." Tomato: According to The Book of Flowers and Plants (1621), "the tomato is also known as June persimmon. Its stem grows more than one meter high. Its leaves look like Chinese mugwort and its flowers like pomegranate. One branch can bear about four fruits and one tree bears about 30 fruits. It is also a kind of ornamental herbal plant:" Other crops and plants were also introduced in the Qing Dynasty, such as kidney beans, wild cabbage, sunflowers (first introduced to the country from Southeast Asia around the late 17th century only for aesthetic value in gardens. Later, they were used to make medicines and produce oil and food) and cauliflower (first introduced in 1882 during the eighth year of the reign period of Emperor Guangxu from Europe, and grown experimentally in Pudong, Shanghai). The introduction of foreign crops and plants enriched the material life and dietary culture of Chinese people, developing through cultural exchange between China and foreign countries. Dietary Constituents and Ingredients By dietary constituents and ingredients we mean the mixed preparation for a meal consisting of staple food, non-staple food and drink. Variations in these are closely linked with economic development, ethnic customs, and social changes. With the arrival of agricultural society, dietary structure was limited by the level of production and this structure changed through different historical periods. On the whole, however, a dietary mode developed using grains as the staple and meat, vegetables and fruits to supplement them and this continues to the present day. This dietary structure is quite different from the Western dietary mode, in which meat is taken as the main source of food with no clear distinction of staples and non-staples. Food structure in ancient times seemed too complicated. Staples included various varieties of grain crops but non-staples were diverse, ranging from all kinds of delicacies to reptiles, wild herbs and vegetables. In the imperial court and the houses of bureaucrats, more superb and fancy non-staple foods might be supplied than staple food. For common citizens, the supplement food might consist of large quantities of chaffs and brans and vegetables. Both fancy foods and grains and vegetables had to be processed to make them edible and to improve their taste. The cooking methods of the gentry differed greatly from those of the common people. The former usually employed skilled chefs using the best materials and spices. Some of the most famous dishes in ancient times have been passed down to the present day. Prior to the Qin Dynasty, meals mostly consisted of non-processed crops, such as beans, peas and wheat. During the Warring States Period and the Han Dynasty, the stone mill was invented to grind grains. Non-processed grains were thus replaced by flour meals which were easily digested and absorbed. After the Han Dynasty, flour products became common in north China which produced dry-farming crops. Various kinds of food could be made with flour according to different tastes and needs. Another processing method was fermentation, through which alcohol and soy sauce were produced for both feast and daily use. Sour fermented glutinous rice and cooked rice juice were used as fermenting agents to make Mantou (steamed bread) and Baozi (steamed stuffed buns). Foods made from fermented flour are fluffy, porous and soft. Yeast contains rich nutritive elements, while enzymes promote the nutritive effect of proteins, starch, fat and vitamins in flour, allowing them to be easily absorbed by the body. The significance of food processing in ancient times should not be underestimated. Before the Qin and Han dynasties, soya beans were used as a staple food, but without grinding, the body was unable to absorb much of their nutritive content. After the invention of the stone mill, people began to produce bean milk. While experimenting with alchemy, Liu An of the Han Dynasty invented beancurd, a great invention in the development of food processing, making the vegetable protein much easier to absorb. One study suggests that about 65 percent of the protein of unprocessed beans is absorbed by the body, compared with 92-96 percent for beancurd. A series of derivative products followed, becoming widely popular and solving the problem of protein deficiency.
The Learning of Absorption and Assimilation
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